Typically, the individual cells in a battery have somewhat different capacities and may be at different levels of state of charge (SOC). Without balancing, the cell of smallest capacity is a “weak ...

Large, high-voltage rechargeable battery systems are now common sources of power in applications ranging from electric vehicles to power grid load leveling systems. These large battery stacks are ...

Supercapacitors (SCs) generally operate at low voltages of about 2.7 V. To achieve higher operating voltages, it is necessary to build up a cascade of SC cells connected in series. Due to variations ...

In recent years the Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery has gained in popularity because the market for battery powered portable products is increasing significantly. The superior characteristics of Li-Ion ...